Interpretive News 2012

 Interpretative(Interpretive)Reporting
v  What is interpretative reporting?• . It is reporting news depth and with care, news refreshed with background materials to make it comprehensive and meaningful.
v  What is interpretative reporting?• . It is about telling the reader everything he needs to know about a given development, and all the essential facts in a way that brings the story to the readers environment
v  It is giving the reading public accurate information as fully as the importance of any story dictates.v  Based on the following definitions,interpretative reporting is more thanthe recital of bare facts but reportingnews refreshed with backgroundmaterials to make it comprehensiveand meaningful. Interpretivereporting uses skills in explanation,analysis and description.
v  Interpretive (or interpretative)journalism goes beyond the basicfacts of an event or topic toprovide context, analysis, andpossible consequences.
v   Interpretive journalists must haveunusual familiarity with andunderstanding of a subject, andtheir work involves looking forpatterns, motives, and influencesthat explain what they arereporting.
v   Interpretive journalism overlaps withother forms of reporting( Investigative Reporting ; AdvocacyJournalism ), in which journaliststhemselves, after interviews andreviews of documents and data, assertwho committed wrong or whatcaused failure.
v   Here are the major phases that areinvolved in interpretativereporting: • Factual or fact-gathering phase - the first and, personally, the crucial stage, since, this stage will be the foundation of all the reports. With enough facts gathered, verified and rechecked, the reporter can then have more assurance of making a story stand. • Prophesy phase - the writer, like a scientist, makes an “educated guess” or like a hypothesis in science, where he can somehow predict, based on the FACTS, where his / her story is leading. Information from experts can verify if the “guess” may lead to something concrete. • Interpretation phase - this phase is the “fruit” of the two previous phases, where the reporter concludes on the MEANING, IMPORTANCE or EFFECT of all the reports. The reporter’s interpretation can be highlighted on this or an / the expert/s opinion on the matter.
v  In contrast to the opinion journalism,which takes position to the topicsthemselves, the interpretivejournalism tries to report objectivelyand to quote therefore several pointsof view. The journalist knowshowever by selection and order ofthese points of view under-smolder-lies nevertheless a certain opinion torepresent.
v   As a result of adding extendedinformation from differentsources arises the interpretationof the journalist, who is asobjective as possible and for whoreaders arrange the backgroundof the event.
v  In interpretive journalism theselection of the sources isparticularly important.
v  A high-quality interpretive articlecontains sources of various kind andparticularly from various points ofview. Here the opinions ofProtagonist, in addition, of experts,entangled into the message, who arefamiliar with the respective topic, playan important role.
v   what is the distinction betweenobjective journalism andinterpretive journalism?
v  Interpretive reporting takes thefacts from objective journalismand adds context and analysis
v  Interpretive Writing shouldProvoke, Relate, and Reveal!
v  Types of Interpretive Stories• Wall street journal format• Multiple-element story• Trend Piece
v   The Inverted PyramidLeadSupportingParagraphSecondaryInformationBackgroundInformation
v   THE TREND PIECEAnecdote thatIllustrates trendStatistics thatClearly establishTrend.Speculation by expertsOn probable causes andSignificance of trendKicker, preferablyAlluding to originalAnecdote
v   THE WALL STREET JOURNAL FORMULA 1 Focus on Individual Return to Transition to4. original focus Larger Issue 2 Developmen t of Larger issue 3
v   The Multiple Element storyMultiple element Element ALead Element BDevelopment ofElement ADevelopment ofElement BBullets Element C Element D Element E Element F
v  The full flowering of interpretivereporting, however, occurs instories that are not based onevents
v   These are enterprise stories:trend stories, backgrounders,analyses, “think” pieces,investigative reports: that areincreasingly becoming thehallmark of newspaperjournalism
v  They seek to identify the causesof events rather than report ontheir occurrence. Such storiesgive the causes andconsequences of events.
v  Reporters are expected to keeptheir personal opinions out ofprint, although this often amatter of form than of substance.
v   The control that reporters exertover the content of interpretivestories, both sources and facts,makes it impossible to claim thatpersonal opinion is absent.
v  Professional acceptance of interpretivereporting since the 1960s has broughtwith it a number of variations injournalistic style and method – the newjournalism, activism and advocacy,adversary journalism, investigativejournalism, etc

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The Kiel International Seapower Symposium 2017 discusses maritime security challenges in the Eastern Mediterranean

Deadline: 26 May 2017
Open to: participants between the ages of 18 and 35 years old, linked to YATA Chapter or ATA/YATA Partner Organization
Venue: 20 June 2017 – Kiel, Germany

Description

The Kiel International Seapower Symposium 2017 discusses maritime security challenges in the Eastern Mediterranean. It aims to shed light on current political and military developments in the region as well as their broader geopolitical implications. Consequently, the conference will discuss to what degree both regional and non-regional actors utilize sea power in order to secure their interests in this part of the world. Thereby a multitude of aspects needs to be considered. These range from sea control, power projection capabilities, and the control of straits, to the security of SLOCs, maritime and economic infrastructure, anti-access/area denial networks, and littoral warfare – all of which have a significant bearing on the future developments in the region and beyond.

YATA has reserved three slots at the conference for highly motivated young professionals and/or students interest in maritime security questions related to the Mediterranean sea. In order to qualify for one of these slots, applications must send in an application related to one of the four panels organized at KISS.

1. Cradle of civilization and critical junction;
2. Great powers – great stakes;
3. Regional stakeholders – competing interests;
4. The long view – prospects for the region.

Eligibility

The selection criteria is:

• Age between 18 and 35;
• Member of YATA Chapter or ATA/YATA Partner Organization;
• Experienced with social media tools, primarily Facebook and Twitter;
• Knowledgeable about maritime security (proven by a draft proposal for their essay);
• Able to attend on June 19 and June 20;
• Remain active in follow-up activities.

In addition to these criteria, the selection will be based on geographic, gender and occupation spread in order to achieve a healthy representation of the YATA network.

Costs

The ISPK has arranged accommodation in style, participants will stay two nights on board of a small yacht. In addition, it will provide up to 200 EUR of travel reimbursement. Transportation from the accommodation to the conference venue is provided in the morning and at night. Coffee breaks, lunch, and reception are also covered.

How to apply?

All potential candidates are required to send:

• Their Curriculum Vitae (no longer than two pages);
• Motivation letter;
• Their Facebook and Twitter handles;
• Short essay draft proposal (no longer than 300 words);
• Five questions to be asked during KISS 2017.

Please send your application to international.yata@gmail.com no later than May 26, using the following format: Last Name_Kiel International Seapower Symposium_Name of the panel in the subject of your email.

For more information please visit the official web page.

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The Lviv Leadership Academy international summer course in Ukraine

The Lviv Leadership Academy or LLA is a two-week intensive international summer course held in Lviv, Ukraine for higher education students and young professionals. LLA will invite forty young leaders from Ukraine, Eastern Partnership Nations, the EU, and Balkan countries from 6-19 August 2017. Applications will be accepted until 31st of May 2017 and evaluated on a rolling basis. The cost to attend LLA will not exceed 50 Euros. Participants will be required to take at least two final exams at the conclusion of LLA 2017.

Reference

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IYPORTAL, we’re dedicated to helping young people succeed. We open doors for youth with a holistic approach that emphasizes life skills in combination with a mix of technical, vocational, and entrepreneurship training. As a result, young people are prepared to enter the workforce, create their own opportunities, and be agents of change in their communities.

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SUMMER INTERNSHIP PROGRAMME 2017 (PAKISTAN)

Region South Asia 
Country Pakistan 
Location Pakistan - 
location flexible
 Department Business Support Services
 Job Category Internship
 Pay Band Attachment 
Vacancy Description Right to work in Pakistan; Stipend: PKR 15,000 per month, Duration: 6 to 8 weeks, Location: Karachi, Islamabad and Lahore

The British Council in Pakistan offers internships to students every summer ranging in duration from six to eight weeks. Students get a hands-on experience of what it is like to work in UK’s international organisation for cultural relations and educational opportunities. Come and be part of a team at the British Council that’s working to changing lives by creating opportunities, building connections and engendering trust.

WHO ARE WE

The British Council

The British Council is the UK’s international organisation for cultural relations and educational opportunities. We create friendly knowledge and understanding between the people of the UK and other countries. We do this by making a positive contribution to the UK and the countries we work with – changing lives by creating opportunities, building connections and engendering trust.

Country Operation

We have been in Pakistan for over sixty years, and during that time we have developed deep and lasting relationships with individuals and organisations. We have re-opened Libraries as convening spaces, content hubs and information services that support our wider strategy in Pakistan.

In Pakistan we operate at scale supporting 500,000 exams a year, working with over 150,000 teachers and all Higher Education Institutions. We have ambitious plans for Arts, further work in English – especially in Sindh and KPK building on our success in the Punjab.  We aim to do this through delivery of services using a range of channels including more digital avenues.

WHAT ARE WE LOOKING FOR

We’re looking for talented individuals who demonstrate the following behaviours and skills:

Behaviours

·         Making it Happen- Essential Level

·         Working with Others- Essential Level

·         Connecting with Others- Essential Level

·         Creating Shared Purpose- Essential Level

·         Shaping the Future- Essential Level

·         Being Accountable- Essential Level

Skills

·         Managing Project, level 3: Leads smaller projects

·         Communicating and Influencing, level 2: Relates communications to circumstances

·         Planning and Organising, level 1: Is methodical

·         Analysing Data and Problems, level 3: Analyses patterns

·         Using Technology, level 2: Operates as an advanced user

For more information on what the behaviours and skills mean, please refer to the British Council Behavioursand British Council Core Skills

SUPPORTING STATEMENT

In your supporting statement, we would like to see examples of how you have employed these behaviours and skills in your personal life or academic/ professional career so far.

This will form a key part of your assessment as a potential candidate for the internship programme.

WHAT YOU GET

·         6 to 8 weeks paid internship programme.

·         Personal and professional development

·         Corporate culture exposure

·         Internship experience letter

LOCATION:

Karachi, Lahore and Islamabad

STIPEND

PKR 15,000 per month

CLOSING DATE: 
UK time: 23:59, 14 May 2017 
Pak time: 3:59, 15 May 2017 

Reference



IYPORTAL, we’re dedicated to helping young people succeed. We open doors for youth with a holistic approach that emphasizes life skills in combination with a mix of technical, vocational, and entrepreneurship training. As a result, young people are prepared to enter the workforce, create their own opportunities, and be agents of change in their communities.

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Career Opportunities: Internship, Partnership, Governance and Advocacy - Rome, Italy

ORGANIZATIONAL CONTEXT

The World Food Programme is the world's largest humanitarian agency, fighting hunger worldwide. We are currently seeking to fill an internship position under the WFP External Relations Office of the Partnership, Governance and Advocacy Division. The position will be based at our Headquarters in Rome, Italy, starting as soon as possible.

JOB PURPOSE

The selected candidate will be assisting the WFP Partnership, Governance and Advocacy Division  with the following key duties:

• Assist in preparations for Committee on World Food Security meetings on topics such as but not limited to the Sustainable Development Goals, nutrition and support to smallholder farmers.
• Support monitoring, data collection and knowledge management: including updating the RBA Collaboration Database on a regular basis; and keeping track on global RBA initiatives; 
• Assist in maintaining a network of RBA focal points at both HQ and regional level;
• Assist in updating internal guidelines such as but not limited to: RBA Collaboration Guidance Material; relevant sections in the Project Design Manual for Country Strategies / projects, etc.;
• Assist in strengthening on-going partnerships with the Rome-based agencies at all levels;
• Keep abreast of FAO and IFAD policies and programmes and undertake research upon request;
• Attend meetings, take notes, prepare briefs, reports and statements, and alert management on strategic issues;
• Assist in analysing various documents and preparing comments from a PGR perspective;
• Perform other duties as required.

STANDARD MINIMUM QUALIFICATIONS

• Currently enrolled and have attended University courses in the last 12 months inclusive of having completed at least two years of undergraduate studies or have recently graduated in the last 12 months in the following:   political science, international development, development economics, international relations, communications or other related field;
• Proficiency in MS Office (Word, Excel, Power Point);
• Fluent in English;
• General knowledge of UN system policies, rules, regulations and procedures governing administration;
• Knowledge of the Committee on World Food Security and the other Rome-based Agencies would be an asset;
• Strong writing skills,  Coordination and advocacy skills in inter-governmental /inter-agency processes.

TERMS AND CONDITIONS

• Interns receive a monthly stipend from WFP up to the amount of US$700 per month depending on the duty station of assignment.  The current amount for Rome is around US$600.
• WFP is not responsible for living expenses, arrangements for accommodation, travel to and from WFP internship location, necessary visas and costs related.

DEADLINE FOR APPLICATIONS

18 April 2017

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IYPORTAL, we’re dedicated to helping young people succeed. We open doors for youth with a holistic approach that emphasizes life skills in combination with a mix of technical, vocational, and entrepreneurship training. As a result, young people are prepared to enter the workforce, create their own opportunities, and be agents of change in their communities.

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Japan International Award for Young Agricultural Researchers (Japan Award) 2017

 Overview

This annual award, which began in 2007, is organized and presented by the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF) of Japan. Its purpose is to increase motivation among young researchers contributing to research and development in agriculture, forestry, fisheries, and related industries in developing regions, which is promoted by Japan for the benefit of those countries. Up to three young researchers who have shown

1. outstanding performance in research and development in agriculture, forestry, fisheries, or related industries for a developing region, and who show great promise
2. outstanding achievements in research and development that will lead to future technological innovation in agriculture, forestry, fisheries or related industries for a developing area, and who show great promise

will be invited to Japan to attend the commendation ceremony this November and accept their awards and cash gifts (US$5,000 will be given per awardee).

 Eligibility

1. Should be under the age of 40 (as of January 1, 2017)
2. Should be researchers who have the nationality of developing countries and/or territories, belong to a non-Japanese research institute or a non-Japanese university
3. Should be engaged in research and development in agriculture, forestry, fisheries and related industries in developing regions
4. Must be able to attend the commendation ceremony and deliver a lecture on  November 2, 2017.

 Application deadline

May 26, 2017 (Fri.)

Apply

IYPORTAL, we’re dedicated to helping young people succeed. We open doors for youth with a holistic approach that emphasizes life skills in combination with a mix of technical, vocational, and entrepreneurship training. As a result, young people are prepared to enter the workforce, create their own opportunities, and be agents of change in their communities.

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Filmmaking Work Abroad Program in Vietnam, Summer 2017

Filmmaking Work Abroad Program in Vietnam, Summer 2017

Director/ Cameraman/ Copywriter/ Storyboard Artist Recruitment

Established in 2001,Tu Van Television and Advertising Limited Company (Tuvan Media) take pride in being one of leading companies in the field of doing creativeness and making TV commercials, feature films, cultural programs and comedies and launching promotion campaigns. Powered by talented managers and staffs, and after many years working diligently and intensively, we were granted many achievements at home and abroad such as “Golden Bell Award” granted by Vietnam Advertising Association and “Excellent Effects” for TV commercials awarded by Vietnam Advertising Association.

UNESCO Centre of Cinema Development (UCCD) has been coordinating with national and international film units to build scripts and produce documentary, scientific and education and entertainment films. The Center cooperated with giant companies producing television commercials, advertising films to improve the effectiveness of media to customers.

This Summer, Tuvan Media in collaboration with UCCD is launching Filmmaking Work Abroad Program in Vietnam in Vietnam, Summer 2017 to find best candidates in the following functions

1/ Director: Number 02

2/Cameraman: Number 02

3/ Storyboard Artist: Number 02

4/ Film &TVC Copywriter: Number 02

A/ REQUIREMENTS AND JOB DESCRIPTION 1. FILM DIRECTOR AND CAMERAMAN
Target candidates	Undergraduates and fresh graduate students from Academies of Theatre and Cinema, Universities of Film Theatre or all Schools with related training courses with prominent study results
Education	Film and Television Direction, Cinematography etc
Experience	Having at least 2-3 videos or short films. In the résumé, online links of the prominent films must be inserted in term of directors/cameramen and clarified the role in each video (Cameraman or Director).
Job description	Candidates will take part in TVC projects in the position of Director/ cameraman in Vietnam.
Target Project	TVCs
Working hours	Full time
2. STORYBOARD  ARTIST
Target candidates	Undergraduates and fresh graduate students with prominent storyboard products produced manually and by computer in black and white or full color.
Education	Majors or degrees in art, fine arts, illustration, digital art OR related area
Experience	Having at least 3-4 storyboards for animated features, films, television commercials and other ad campaigns, music videos, and video games – attached in PDF format (black and color products).
Computer	Graphic design software skills – Adobe Photoshop/ Illustrator/ CorelDraw
Job description	Candidates will take part in TVC projects in the position of Storyboard Artist in Vietnam. “Storyboarders,” storyboard artists work with producers, directors, and film crew from start to finish by sketching scenes during initial meetings, and editing or eliminating scenes as the project progresses Using computer drawing and storyboarding software to draw a series of pictures to represent a script or screenplay
Target Project	TVCs
Working hours	Full time
3. FILM & TVC COPYWITER
Target candidates	Undergraduates and fresh graduate students with a prominent portfolio   which contain fresh, interesting and effective ideas about advertising goods or services on air
Education	A degree is not essential for a copywriter, but a qualification in the following    subjects may increase your chances: marketing, advertising; communication or media studies; journalism; public relations …
Experience	Having at least 3-5 ideals in your portfolio about advertising goods or services with different approaches and in the best case 2-3 ideals become the script which is made into TVC. In Resume, at least 3 scripts (TVCs scripts presented with pictures/ Illustrated ideals with Pictures by Adobe Photoshop, Microsoft PowerPoint) to show your creativeness, your skills at presentation (not only texts).
Skills	Creativity, imagination and commercial awareness with the ability to understand the target audience Illustrated ideals with Pictures by Adobe Photoshop, Microsoft PowerPoint
Job description	Liaising with clients and interpreting their briefs. Brainstorming creative ideas, slogans, catchphrases, and messages; writing scripts for TV commercials Presenting ideas to colleagues and clients Overseeing TVC through the production stage to completion.
Target Project	TVCs
Working hours	Full time
B/ OTHER REQUIREMENTS
1. Languages	Excellent English (required)
2. Additional skills	A basic understanding of film theory Have a good communication and presentation skills Be conscious of any relevant technical or budgetary restrictions Be able to work calmly and efficiently to tight deadlines.
C/ PROGRAM INFORMATION
1.Organizational Preferences:
Earliest Start Date Latest End Date Minimum Duration Maximum Duration	01 June 2017 (required) 01 June 2018 6 months (required) 1 year
2. Advantages
Build portfolio and strengthen credentials Broaden network of professional contacts in Film industry and have chances to work with experienced directors Improve adapting ability and flexibility Gain working experience and enhance professional skills in an international environment, enrich knowledge and solve problems in an effective manner. Be supported during the time in Vietnam (accommodation fee, two-ways flights) and monthly allowance Cultivate cross-culture experience in one of the most culturally rich countries in Asia like Vietnam Challenge yourself, develop comprehensive personal and interpersonal skills. Receive Certificate after Project completion.
3. What does it cover?
1. Travelling expenses to Vietnam: Two-way flights 2. Visa to Vietnam 3. Accommodation 4. Monthly living allowance
4. How to Apply

Round 1: Form Application Round Applicants should send a résumé with recent photo, a cover letter, scanned passport + degree/ related qualification + attachment required in each position above (online link videos/ storyboards /scripts) before 30 April 2017 through email: Tuvanmedia.production@gmail.com

Save your files with the file names

“Full name_Nationality_Position application _File name

For example: Mark Twain_Japanese_Copywriter_Cover letter

When emailing your application please use the following format in the ‘subject’ line: Summer 2017_ Position application _Full name_Nationality (Clarify the position applying)

For example: Summer 2017_Copywriter Application_Mark Twain_Japanese.

Round 2: Online interview with Tuvan Media

The list of chosen candidates to interview will be sent before 10 May 2017

The intended day for interview: 12 May 2017

Notification: The final selection results will be announced on 15 May 2017

For further information, please do not hesitate to contact us to start a new promising cooperation.

Contact information

Global Exchange Program

Department for filming abroad – Tu Van Television Advertising Company Limited

14/17 Hoang Ngoc Phach Street, Dong Da District, Hanoi City, Vietnam

Mail: tuvanmedia.production@gmail.com

Hotline: (+84) 904 610 291

Hanoi, 14th April 2017

Director

Luong Dinh Dung

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IYPORTAL, we’re dedicated to helping young people succeed. We open doors for youth with a holistic approach that emphasizes life skills in combination with a mix of technical, vocational, and entrepreneurship training. As a result, young people are prepared to enter the workforce, create their own opportunities, and be agents of change in their communities.

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Organic matter status of Pakistan soils and its management

Soil organic matter affects so many soil properties and processes that a complete discussion of the topic is beyond the scope. Often one effect leads to another, so that a complex chain of multiple benefits results from the addition of organic matter to soils. For example, adding organic mulch to the soil surface encourages earthworm activity, which in turn leads to the production of burrows and other biopores, which in turn increases the infiltration of water and decreases its loss as runoff, a result that finally leads to less pollution of streams and lakes.

In Pakistan, the soils are very poor in organic matter than the desirable level. A soil having 1.29 % C is considered to be sufficient in organic matter, but Pakistan soils are having less than that. In a survey conducted by Farooq-e-Azam it is reported that the range of soil carbon in Pakistan soils is 0.52 to 1.38% in different soil series. Most of them have less than 1%.

Reasons For Low Organic Matter Content of Pakistan Soils
The low organic matter content of Pakistan soils can be attributed to the following reasons.

Climatic Conditions
The mean annual temperature influences the processes of decomposition of organic matter. At high temperatures the decomposition proceeds very quickly. That is why high temperatures prevailing in Pakistan are conducive for a rapid decomposition and loss of organic matter. 

Soil Orders
The differences of organic matter content among soil orders also play key role in determining the potential of a soil to keep a certain level of organic matter. The largest soil orders in Pakistan are Aridisol and Entisol, which are known to have lowest organic matter content among all the soil orders. So our soils naturally have lesser capacity to hold higher organic matter content. 

Use of Mineral Fertilizers
Before the advent of mineral fertilizers and green revolution the farmers used to replenish their soils by the application of organic wastes. With the availability of cheap and easy to handle mineral fertilizers the farmers were able to get higher yields only with the application of mineral fertilizers. Thereby the use of organic wastes reduced drastically. The increasing price of mineral fertilizers and soil degradation concerns have forced people to reconsider the organic sources in agriculture. 

Poor Economic Conditions of Farmers
The miserable economic condition of our farmers is another reason for less application of the organic wastes back to soils. Almost no crop residues are left in the soil after harvest. The straw and other crop residues are used as fodder for the farm animals and the animal dung is used as fuel. About 50% of animal droppings are not collected, about half of the collected is burnt as fuel and only one fourth is available for field application. Green manuring is not adopted by our farmers because it does not give short term economic returns. 

Intensive Tillage
Another culprit for the lower organic matter content of our soils is the practice of intensive soil tillage. Soil tillage aerates the soil and breaks up the organic residues, making them accessible to microbial decomposition thereby reducing the organic matter content of the soil. The slogan “Dab Kay Wah Tay Raj Kay Khah” (Plow more, earn more) has played a considerable role in the organic matter losses. 

Different Organic Sources Available for Improving Soil Organic Matter in Pakistan 

There is a large contingent of organic sources available in the country to be used for improving the organic matter content of our soils. Some of them are discussed here under.

Farmyard manure
Farmyard manure is decomposed mixture of the dung and urine of cattle of other livestock with the straw and litter used as bedding and residues from the fodder fed to them. It has been estimated that about 1.5 million tones of nutrients are available from farmyard manure in Pakistan. About 50 per cent of the dung in Pakistan remains uncollected. Out of collected animals dung about 50 per cent is used as fuel in the from dried cake, locally called “Pathi”. Whatever is collected for manuring is usually heaped on the ground surface with residues from fodder and other house sweepings. The nitrogen in the manure is subject to volatilization and leaching losses and the material that finally will be spread on the field may have low nitrogen content. The application of well-decomposed manure is more desirable than using fresh materials. 

Poultry manure
Poultry manure has a higher nutrient content than livestock manure. According to the estimates the poultry manure available in the country can contribute about 101 thousand tones of nitrogen, 58 thousand tones of phosphorous and 26 thousand tones of potash.

Crop residues
Crop residues include straw, husk, leave, vegetable and fruit waste, grass cuttings, weeds, sawdust etc. In Pakistan, most of the crop residues such as wheat straw, sugarcane tops/trash, cotton sticks, rice husk etc are used as fodder for animals and as a fuel. But other waste materials can be converted into useful compost manures by conserving and subjecting them to a controlled process of decomposition.

Green manure
Green manuring refers to the practice of growing crops, preferably legumes and ploughing them under, when they reach maximum production of green tops. Legumes are preferred as they have the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen. The amount of N fixed varies from crop to crop and may be about 20-40 kg/ha. In Pakistan Dhancha, Guar and Sunhemp are suitable crops for green manuring.

Filter cake and silage
According to an estimate Pakistan sugar industry is producing about 1.2 million tones of filter cake every year, which is a rich source of organic matter, micro and macronutrients. Some sugar mils have molasses based distillery plants, which produce silage containing nutrients specially potassium. In case, all these materials are recycled by composting back to soil, it will also be a good source of essential plant nutrients for crop growth.

Slaughter house waste
Slaughter house wastes such as dried blood, meat meal, hoof and horn meal; have a high N content and are essentially concentrated organic manures, fairly quick acting, safe to use and effective on all crops. Slaughter houses are wide spread throughout Pakistan and largely their by-products are left outside, in one appraisal, it was shown that about 8000 tons blood meal could be produced annually for manorial use containing essential nutrients.

Other solid and liquid based materials 
The other solid and liquid based materials available include sewage and sludge, fishpond effluent, city refuse and some waste of food processing industries. All these materials cannot be used directly as source of plant nutrients. However, after proper processing and removal of heavy metals and undesirable materials, these can prove good source of plant nutrients.

Compost
Composting is the process of decomposing (through the action of micro-organisms in the soil) plant residues in a heap or pit with a view to converting the nutrients contained in the residue in more readily available form.

In rural areas crop residues, stubbles, weeds, fallen leaves, remnants of fodder and green manure, etc. can be collected and stored in heap or pit. In this way, as the last pit is filled, the compost in the first pit is ready for application. Municipal/industrial wastes comprising mainly town refuse and human excreta can also be composted. The preparation of urban compost on a large scale is being done in many countries. Some plants are also installed in Pakistan. Quite sophisticated machinery may be required for this purpose.

Biogas compost
This is a process by which organic material are biologically decomposed to yield energy in the form of combustible gases. The residual material provides valuable manure. Cattle dung which should be used for improving soil productivity is generally burnt as fuel. Biogas technology reconciles both these objectives: anaerobic decomposition of the cattle dung yield both fuel (biogas) and organic fertilizer (sludge). Biogas, popularly known as “gobargas”, is composed mainly of methane (CH4), about 60 percent; thus 1000 cubic feet biogas is equivalent to 600 cubic feet of natural gas, 5.2 gallons of gasoline and 4.6 gallons of diesel oil. A small family of four would require 150 cubic feet of biogas per day, for cooking and lighting an amount which can be generated from the family’s night soil and the dung of three cows.

Strategies For Improving Organic Matter Content of Pakistan Soils

Integrated Plant Nutrition Management System
Organic source (farm yard manure, crop residues), in addition to providing nutrients, improve the physical condition of the soil. Nevertheless, organic materials release plant nutrients slowly. Crops require an instant flow of nutrients at special growth stages to ensure higher yield, which cannot be supplied by natural weathering of minerals and organic materials. Biological sources have their own limitations of being crop specific. Fertilizers, which have all the nutrients in available form, can provide sufficient plant nutrient flow to the corps. Fertilizers are the quickest and surest way of boosting crop production but their cost and constraints frequently deter farmers from using them in the recommended quantities and balanced proportions. The limitations associates with either source of plant nutrients are often overcome when they are used in judicious combinations providing a mixture, which in the long-term, is not only complementary but also synergistic.

At present in Pakistan during a survey by NFDC it was found out that 49 per cent farmers use the FYM. The cultivation of sesbania as green manure crop in normal as well as marginally salt effected soils is being practiced by some farmers and its worth has been proved in many studies. Among the crop residues the practice of ploughing of cotton sticks is picking up among the farmers. Pakistan Agriculture Research Council (PARC), National Institute of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering (NIBGE) and Provincial Agricultural Research Institute are carrying out work on biological fertilization. Pakistan Agriculture Research Council in collaboration with Engro Chemical Pakistan Limited commercialized rhizobium specific for chickpea in the name of Biozot. NIBGE is also marketing its bio-fertilizer for rice in the brand name as Biopower. Provincial Research Institutes are also providing inoculums to the farmers formers for leguminous and non leguminous crops. 

Zero/ Minimum Tillage System
Zero tillage is a system in which the soil is left undisturbed. The only soil disturbance is of a narrow band by soil engaging components of the planter or drill. Reduction in soil disturbance from conventional, highly disturbed tillage methods to minimum or zero tillage produces slower carbon losses and may even increase the amount of C stored in a soil. Long-term experiments conducted in developed countries support this conclusion. Other benefits of zero tillage to farmers include: Less labour, reduced machinery wear and tear, high soil moisture, improved soil tilth, reduced soil erosion and reduced production cost.

In Pakistan, the zero tillage has proved excellent for rice-wheat cropping system. It allows utilization and conservation of antecedent soil moisture, time saving due to early planting, and minimize yield losses attributed to soil structural break down under continuous cropping practices. Adoption of zero tillage system for all the agro ecological zones of Pakistan still needs a lot of experimentation and research work.

Weed control through chemicals is one of the drawbacks of this system. Because of being costly and environmentally hazardous it is desirable to use some cheaper and environmentally safe chemicals. It is also possible that instead of keeping the field completely free of weeds, we can keep them to a safe threshold level and only till when weeds exceed threshold level. Increasing the cropping intensity is excellent way-out to reduce weeds. 

However, under our conditions, minimum tillage system seems to be more promising than zero tillage. Cultivation can be done only when ever it is inevitable, for example at seedbed preparation or when weeds exceed the threshold level. This would also help reduce the use of chemicals for control of weeds and insects. Thereby reducing the input costs and environmental concerns.

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